In the aftermath of Muammar Gaddafi’s 2011 ousting, Libya’s political and security vacuum transformed the nation into a fertile ground for illicit activities, notably migrant smuggling and human trafficking. The disintegration of centralized authority led to the rise of various armed factions and criminal networks, each vying for control over strategic regions and resources.
This fragmentation not only destabilized the nation but also established Libya as a central hub for transnational smuggling operations. The lucrative nature of these enterprises attracted militias and criminal syndicates, further entrenching the chaos. Notably, at the peak of migration flows in 2016, Chatham House reported that human smuggling and trafficking in Libya generated approximately $978 million in revenue, underscoring the scale and profitability of these illicit markets.
The Complex Web of Local Dynamics and Conflict Economy
Libya’s strategic positioning, with its expansive Mediterranean coastline and proximity to Europe, has made it a focal point for migrants from sub-Saharan Africa and beyond. Key transit hubs such as Kufra, Sebha, and Zawiya have emerged as critical nodes in smuggling networks. In Kufra, the local economy has become heavily reliant on cross-border smuggling, with armed groups controlling and taxing the movement of migrants. Sebha, characterized by its social diversity, has seen various ethnic groups engage in competitive smuggling operations, often leading to violent clashes. Zawiya, located on the coast, has become notorious for human trafficking, with reports of migrants being subjected to forced labor and sexual exploitation.
The proliferation of smuggling has not only been a consequence of conflict but has actively fueled ongoing violence, embedding itself within the country’s conflict economy. Revenues generated from illicit activities fund armed groups and perpetuate cycles of violence. In Sebha, competition among ethnic and tribal groups over smuggling routes has led to frequent violent clashes, while in Zawiya, militias involved in trafficking have leveraged their economic power to exert political influence, undermining state institutions and the rule of law. This economic entanglement has created a self-sustaining system where conflict begets smuggling, and smuggling, in turn, finances further conflict.
The involvement of state actors further complicates the landscape. Elements within the Libyan Coast Guard have been implicated in smuggling activities, with allegations of collusion with traffickers and abuse of migrants. This blurring of lines between official duties and criminal enterprises undermines efforts to combat smuggling and contributes to a pervasive culture of impunity. A notable figure in this milieu was Abd al-Rahman al-Milad, commonly known as “Bija,” a commander in the Libyan Coast Guard implicated in human trafficking. Despite being sanctioned by the United Nations in 2018, Bija maintained significant influence until his assassination in Tripoli in 2024, an event that exposed the internal rivalries among militias and the challenges in distinguishing between legitimate authorities and criminal entities.
Efforts to dismantle these networks have been met with limited success. While Libyan authorities have occasionally conducted operations against traffickers, the deeply entrenched nature of smuggling networks, coupled with political instability and corruption, poses significant challenges. The international community continues to grapple with formulating effective strategies to address the root causes of smuggling and provide viable alternatives for those seeking better opportunities.
European Interventions: A Double-Edged Sword
In response to the escalating migration crisis, European nations implemented a series of measures aimed at curbing the flow of migrants from Libya. The European Union (EU) established the Emergency Trust Fund for Africa in 2015, allocating €5 billion to address the root causes of irregular migration and displacement. A significant portion of this fund was directed towards Libya, focusing on enhancing border security, supporting local communities, and improving conditions for migrants.
Italy, in particular, forged agreements with Libyan authorities, providing financial support and resources to combat human smuggling and restrict humanitarian rescue missions in the Mediterranean. These tactics led to a reported 62% reduction in irregular migration, attributed to diplomatic and financial agreements with countries like Tunisia and Libya. However, these interventions have faced criticism for potential human rights violations and questionable sustainability. Reports have highlighted that EU funds, intended to stem migration, have at times been mismanaged or diverted, with some resources potentially benefiting human rights abusers or being used for unintended purposes.
Moreover, the collaboration with Libyan coastguard units has raised concerns, as some members have been implicated in human trafficking. Bija’s involvement as both a coastguard commander and smuggler exemplifies the blurred lines between state and criminal enterprises in efforts to curb smuggling, with possibilities of unintended consequences that may exacerbate the very issues they aim to resolve.
Humanitarian Impact and Ongoing Challenges
The entrenchment of smuggling networks and the militarization of migration routes have had severe humanitarian repercussions. Migrants transiting through Libya are frequently subjected to egregious human rights abuses, including forced labor, sexual exploitation, torture, and extortion. Detention centers, often controlled by militias, are notorious for their inhumane conditions. Efforts by Libyan authorities to dismantle trafficking networks have led to mass detentions and deportations, yet the underlying drivers of migration and trafficking persist.
Recent reports highlight the ongoing challenges in addressing migrant smuggling and human trafficking in Libya. In September 2024, the European Court of Auditors criticized the EU’s €5 billion fund aimed at limiting migration from Africa to Europe, citing a lack of focus and failure to address human rights risks. Additionally, in February 2025, Libyan authorities discovered mass graves containing nearly 50 bodies in southeastern Libya, underscoring the dire conditions migrants face.
A Final Note: The Path Forward
The complex interplay of conflict, economic incentives, and external interventions has entrenched migrant smuggling and human trafficking within Libya’s socio-political fabric. Addressing this multifaceted crisis necessitates a holistic strategy that goes beyond border control, focusing on regional stability, economic opportunities, and the protection of human rights. International efforts must prioritize collaboration with local communities, support for legitimate governance structures, and the development of sustainable economic alternatives to reduce dependence on smuggling revenues. Ultimately, any long-term solution will require a nuanced understanding of Libya’s internal dynamics, ensuring that interventions do not inadvertently fuel the very networks they seek to dismantle.
